ISC CISSP Certified Information Systems Security Professional Exam Dumps and Practice Test Questions Set 5 Q61-75

Visit here for our full ISC CISSP exam dumps and practice test questions.

Question 61:

 Which type of attack attempts to overload authentication systems by trying many username and password combinations?

A) Man-in-the-Middle Attack
B) Brute-Force Attack
C) Denial-of-Service Attack
D) SQL Injection

Answer: B

Explanation:

 Man-in-the-Middle attacks intercept communications to capture or manipulate data, but do not systematically attempt passwords. Denial-of-Service attacks overwhelm systems to disrupt service, rather than guessing credentials. SQL Injection attacks exploit vulnerabilities in web applications to manipulate databases, but are unrelated to repeated login attempts.

Brute-force attacks remain one of the most common and persistent threats because they do not rely on exploiting software vulnerabilities but instead target the human tendency to create predictable, weak, or reused passwords. Attackers often automate the process using tools such as Hydra, Medusa, Burp Suite Intruder, or custom scripts capable of sending thousands of login attempts per second. These automated tools can test entire dictionaries of commonly used passwords, variations of known credential leaks, or fully random combinations, depending on the attack strategy. Because of their simplicity, brute-force attacks are frequently used as a starting point for cybercriminals probing an environment for weaknesses.

There are several types of brute-force attacks that security professionals should be aware of. Simple brute-force attacks involve guessing passwords without any external guidance, trying every possible character combination. Dictionary attacks leverage lists of common passwords, leaked credential sets, or language-based words to significantly reduce the number of attempts required. Hybrid brute-force attacks combine dictionary-based guesses with appended characters, symbols, or numbers, making them more effective against slightly complex passwords. Credential stuffing, another related method, uses known breached username-password pairs to attempt logins across multiple platforms, exploiting the habit of password reuse.

Brute-force attacks can target any authentication point—VPNs, email services, SSH servers, web applications, APIs, cloud services, Wi-Fi networks, and even encrypted files. Because many systems expose authentication interfaces to the internet, attackers often scan for login endpoints and launch mass automated attacks on exposed services. This makes proper rate limiting and anomaly detection essential.

Organizations can implement several layers of defense to reduce brute-force risks. Enforcing minimum password length, complexity, and expiration policies helps reduce the chance that passwords can be guessed. Implementing account lockout thresholds after a certain number of failed attempts can prevent unlimited guessing, although care must be taken to avoid denial-of-service exploitation. Additionally, CAPTCHA, IP blocking, and behavioral analytics help distinguish legitimate users from automated attack tools. The most critical mitigation is multi-factor authentication (MFA), which ensures that even if a password is successfully guessed, the attacker cannot log in without the second authentication factor.

By understanding how brute-force attacks operate, cybersecurity professionals can better design secure authentication systems, enforce strong credential management, and implement layered security controls. Ultimately, awareness and proactive defense measures significantly reduce the effectiveness of brute-force attempts and help maintain a secure authentication environment.

Question 62:

 Which principle involves implementing multiple layers of security controls to protect assets?

A) Least Privilege
B) Defense in Depth
C) Separation of Duties
D) Need-to-Know

Answer: B

Explanation:

Defense in Depth is not only about stacking security technologies but also about integrating policies, procedures, and human factors into a cohesive strategy. For example, in addition to technical controls like firewalls and antivirus software, organizations implement administrative controls such as security policies, employee training, and incident response plans. Physical controls, including access badges, security guards, and surveillance systems, also contribute to the layered approach. By addressing security from multiple angles, Defense in Depth ensures that even if one control fails, others remain in place to protect assets and detect anomalies.

Implementing Defense in Depth requires careful planning and understanding of potential threats. At the network level, firewalls filter traffic and segment networks to prevent unauthorized access. Intrusion detection and prevention systems monitor for suspicious activity and can alert administrators to ongoing attacks. At the host and application levels, endpoint protection, secure coding practices, and patch management reduce vulnerabilities that attackers might exploit. Data-level controls, including encryption, access permissions, and auditing, ensure that sensitive information remains protected even if a system is compromised.

Another key aspect of Defense in Depth is continuous monitoring and improvement. Security is dynamic; attackers constantly develop new techniques, and defenses must evolve in response. Regular vulnerability assessments, penetration testing, and threat intelligence help identify gaps in the layers of security. In addition, logging and monitoring allow organizations to detect and respond to incidents quickly, reducing potential damage. By combining preventive, detective, and corrective controls, Defense in Depth provides a comprehensive framework for resilience against a wide range of threats.

Ultimately, Defense in Depth emphasizes that no single security control is sufficient on its own. Even the strongest firewall or most sophisticated intrusion detection system can fail, but when multiple, complementary measures are in place, the overall risk is significantly reduced. It aligns with principles such as least privilege, separation of duties, and need-to-know, reinforcing security across technical, administrative, and physical domains. Understanding and applying Defense in Depth is critical for building robust, reliable, and adaptable security architectures capable of protecting modern information systems.

Question 63:

 Which type of attack manipulates users into divulging sensitive information or performing unsafe actions?

A) Phishing
B) Cross-Site Scripting
C) SQL Injection
D) Denial-of-Service

Answer: A

Explanation:

Phishing attacks leverage psychological manipulation, often exploiting trust, fear, urgency, or curiosity to influence the target’s actions. Attackers carefully craft messages that appear legitimate, sometimes replicating the logos, language, and tone of reputable organizations such as banks, online services, or government agencies. For example, an email may claim that a user’s account has been compromised and prompt them to “verify” their credentials immediately, creating a sense of urgency that encourages impulsive action. Because phishing targets human behavior, technical defenses alone are insufficient to completely prevent it.

Spear phishing is a more sophisticated form of phishing, where attackers conduct prior research on a specific individual or organization to create highly personalized messages. These messages may reference colleagues, projects, or recent activities to increase credibility. Whaling targets high-profile individuals such as executives or administrators, often aiming for financial fraud, unauthorized access to sensitive information, or corporate espionage. In both cases, the success of the attack relies on the attacker’s ability to exploit trust and authority, highlighting the human factor as the weakest link in cybersecurity.

Prevention strategies must therefore combine technical measures with ongoing user education. Multi-factor authentication (MFA) ensures that stolen credentials alone are insufficient for account compromise, while advanced email filtering and anti-spoofing technologies reduce the number of phishing messages that reach users’ inboxes. Regular security awareness training helps employees recognize phishing attempts, understand the risks, and respond appropriately. Simulated phishing campaigns are often used by organizations to assess employee readiness and reinforce best practices, creating a culture of vigilance.

Additionally, reporting mechanisms for suspected phishing messages enable rapid response and containment, reducing potential damage. Organizations should also implement incident response plans specifically tailored to social engineering attacks. By addressing both human behavior and technical defenses, the risk posed by phishing can be mitigated, though not entirely eliminated. Understanding phishing as a social engineering tactic emphasizes the importance of awareness, caution, and verification in safeguarding sensitive information. This makes phishing not only a common attack vector but also a critical area of focus in comprehensive cybersecurity programs.

Question 64:

 Which cryptographic mechanism ensures that a message cannot be altered without detection?

A) Encryption
B) Hashing
C) Digital Signature
D) Symmetric Key

Answer: C

Explanation:

Digital signatures play a critical role in modern cybersecurity and digital communication, as they address two fundamental concerns: authenticity and integrity. Authenticity ensures that the sender of a message or document is indeed who they claim to be, while integrity guarantees that the content has not been altered in transit. Unlike simple encryption, which protects data from unauthorized reading, digital signatures provide verifiable proof that the message originated from a legitimate source and has remained unchanged from the time it was signed. This dual functionality makes them indispensable in many applications, ranging from email security to software distribution and financial transactions.

The process of creating a digital signature involves several steps. First, the sender generates a hash of the message using a cryptographic hash function such as SHA-256. This hash produces a unique, fixed-length representation of the original data. The sender then encrypts this hash using their private key, producing the digital signature. The signature is sent along with the original message to the recipient. Upon receiving the message, the recipient decrypts the signature using the sender’s public key and independently generates a hash of the received message. If the decrypted hash matches the newly computed hash, the message is verified as authentic and unaltered. Any modification, even a single character change, would result in a hash mismatch, signaling potential tampering or data corruption.

Digital signatures also provide non-repudiation, which means that the sender cannot later deny having sent the message. This property is particularly valuable in legal, financial, and regulatory contexts, where proof of origin and data integrity is essential. Examples include signing contracts electronically, validating software updates to prevent supply-chain attacks, securing financial transactions, and protecting confidential correspondence.

Integration with Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) enhances the reliability of digital signatures. PKI provides mechanisms for issuing, managing, and revoking digital certificates, which bind public keys to verified identities. Certificates issued by trusted Certificate Authorities (CAs) ensure that the public key used to verify a signature truly belongs to the claimed sender, further increasing trust in the system.

Overall, digital signatures are a cornerstone of secure communication in the digital age. They provide a robust, verifiable method to ensure that data cannot be altered without detection, authenticate the sender’s identity, and support non-repudiation. Understanding and implementing digital signatures is essential for organizations seeking to protect sensitive information, maintain data integrity, and comply with security regulations and standards. Their widespread adoption reflects the critical need for reliable verification mechanisms in an increasingly interconnected digital world.

Question 65:

 Which control type aims to prevent security incidents before they occur?

A) Detective
B) Corrective
C) Preventive
D) Deterrent

Answer: C

Explanation:

Preventive controls form the foundation of a proactive security strategy. Unlike detective or corrective controls, which respond to incidents after they occur, preventive controls are implemented to minimize the likelihood that a security event will take place in the first place. By addressing potential vulnerabilities and enforcing strict access and operational policies, preventive controls reduce the attack surface and protect critical assets from unauthorized access, data breaches, or other malicious activities. Their proactive nature makes them highly effective in mitigating risks before they escalate into actual incidents, saving organizations from potential financial loss, reputational damage, and operational disruption.

Examples of preventive controls extend across technical, administrative, and physical domains. Technical preventive controls include firewalls, which filter traffic based on predefined security rules, preventing unauthorized access to network resources. Intrusion prevention systems (IPS) detect suspicious patterns and block malicious activity in real time. Strong authentication mechanisms, such as multi-factor authentication (MFA), ensure that only verified users can access systems, even if credentials are compromised. Encryption protects sensitive data both at rest and in transit, ensuring that intercepted information cannot be exploited. Additionally, anti-virus and anti-malware solutions continuously monitor systems to prevent the execution of malicious code.

Administrative preventive controls focus on policy, governance, and user behavior. Security policies, standards, and procedures define acceptable use and outline security responsibilities, providing clear guidelines for employees and system administrators. User training and awareness programs are essential, as human error is one of the leading causes of security incidents. For example, educating staff about phishing attacks, safe password practices, and proper handling of sensitive information helps prevent social engineering attacks from succeeding. Regular audits and compliance checks also function as preventive measures by identifying weaknesses before they can be exploited.

Physical preventive controls protect the organization’s infrastructure from unauthorized physical access. Examples include locked server rooms, access cards, security guards, video surveillance, and environmental controls such as fire suppression systems. Even sophisticated digital defenses can be bypassed if physical security is neglected, making these measures an essential part of a comprehensive preventive strategy.

Preventive controls not only reduce the likelihood of incidents but also complement detective and corrective measures. For instance, while a firewall (preventive) blocks unauthorized traffic, an intrusion detection system (detective) identifies attacks that bypass the firewall, and a backup and recovery system (corrective) restores data in the event of a breach. This layered approach, often referred to as defense in depth, maximizes resilience and ensures that security is maintained across multiple vectors. By prioritizing preventive controls, organizations can proactively safeguard assets, maintain operational continuity, and strengthen their overall security posture.

Question 66:

 Which type of malware spreads automatically across networks without user interaction?

A) Virus
B) Worm
C) Trojan
D) Spyware

Answer: B

Explanation:

Worms are among the most dangerous types of malware due to their ability to propagate autonomously across networks. Unlike viruses, which require a host file to execute and rely on user interaction for infection, worms exploit vulnerabilities in operating systems, applications, or network protocols to spread without any human intervention. This self-replicating nature allows worms to rapidly infect large numbers of devices, sometimes within hours, leading to significant operational disruption. Their speed and independence make them a major concern for both enterprise networks and critical infrastructure environments.

The impact of worms extends beyond mere system infection. As they propagate, worms can consume considerable network bandwidth, slow down legitimate traffic, and disrupt essential services. Some worms carry destructive payloads or open backdoors, which attackers can use to deploy ransomware, steal sensitive data, or recruit infected machines into botnets for coordinated attacks. Famous examples include the SQL Slammer worm, which caused a global Internet slowdown in 2003, and the WannaCry ransomware worm, which leveraged the EternalBlue exploit to compromise hundreds of thousands of systems worldwide. These incidents demonstrate that worms can have far-reaching financial, operational, and reputational consequences.

Defending against worms requires a layered approach. Patch management is critical; promptly applying software updates and security patches closes vulnerabilities that worms exploit. Network segmentation limits the ability of worms to spread across different parts of an organization’s infrastructure, containing outbreaks before they escalate. Firewalls and intrusion detection/prevention systems can detect abnormal traffic patterns and block propagation attempts. Endpoint security solutions, such as antivirus and anti-malware tools, provide an additional layer of defense by identifying and removing worm infections on individual devices.

User education, while less directly relevant to worms than to trojans or viruses, still plays a role in overall cybersecurity hygiene. Administrators and IT staff should monitor network activity for unusual patterns, implement strict access controls, and maintain regular system backups to ensure rapid recovery in case of infection.

Understanding worms, their propagation methods, and potential impact is essential for designing effective preventive and containment strategies. By combining technical defenses, policy enforcement, and network monitoring, organizations can mitigate the risks posed by these highly autonomous malware threats and maintain a resilient cybersecurity posture.

Question 67:

 Which authentication factor is based on something the user possesses?

A) Password
B) Token
C) Fingerprint
D) PIN

Answer: B

Explanation:

Passwords and PINs are knowledge-based authentication factors, relying on something the user knows. These credentials are secret pieces of information that users must remember and input to gain access to systems or services. While passwords and PINs are widely used due to their simplicity and ease of implementation, they are vulnerable to several types of attacks, including guessing, brute-force attacks, phishing, keylogging, or social engineering. Because these attacks target the knowledge factor directly, relying solely on passwords and PINs is often insufficient for protecting sensitive information, particularly in high-security environments.

Fingerprints, on the other hand, are biometric authentication factors, representing something the user inherently is. Biometrics leverage unique physical or behavioral traits—such as fingerprints, facial features, iris patterns, or voice recognition—to verify identity. The advantage of biometric factors is that they are extremely difficult to replicate or steal compared to knowledge-based credentials. However, biometric systems also have limitations, including false positives or negatives, high implementation costs, and privacy concerns. Moreover, unlike passwords, biometric traits cannot be easily changed if compromised.

Tokens represent a third category of authentication factors: something the user possesses. Tokens can be physical devices like smart cards, USB security keys, or hardware tokens that display one-time passwords (OTPs), or they can be virtual, such as software-based authentication apps generating time-based codes. Possession-based authentication provides a strong layer of security because it requires the user to physically have a device or credential in their possession. Even if an attacker knows the user’s password or PIN, access is denied without the token. This principle is a core component of multi-factor authentication (MFA), which combines knowledge-based, possession-based, and/or biometric factors to significantly reduce the likelihood of unauthorized access.

Using tokens in conjunction with other authentication factors enhances security in several ways. They mitigate the risks posed by phishing, since stolen passwords alone are not sufficient. They also limit the impact of brute-force attacks, as repeated attempts without the correct token fail. Additionally, tokens help protect against credential theft or password reuse attacks, providing an independent verification method that cannot be intercepted remotely as easily as knowledge-based credentials.

The authentication factor that relies on something the user possesses is, therefore, a Token, making it the correct answer. Tokens exemplify the possession factor by providing a tangible or digital artifact required for authentication. In modern cybersecurity frameworks, possession-based factors are indispensable, ensuring that identity verification is not dependent solely on knowledge or biometrics, but on a combination of factors that provide layered, robust protection against unauthorized access.

Question 68:

 Which type of control reduces the likelihood or impact of a risk through the implementation of security measures?

A) Preventive
B) Detective
C) Corrective
D) Mitigating

Answer: D

Explanation:

Preventive controls stop incidents before they occur. These controls are proactive measures designed to prevent security breaches, system failures, or operational errors. Examples include strong access controls, security policies, employee training, antivirus software, and firewalls. By implementing preventive controls, organizations aim to block threats from exploiting vulnerabilities in the first place, thereby reducing the chance of harm. Preventive controls are a first line of defense and are essential for maintaining the overall security posture of an organization.

Detective controls, on the other hand, identify incidents after they have occurred. These controls are reactive mechanisms that help detect abnormal activity, unauthorized access, or operational failures. Examples include intrusion detection systems (IDS), audit logs, security monitoring tools, and security cameras. While detective controls do not prevent incidents, they are critical for providing visibility into potential security breaches, enabling timely response and analysis. They serve as a feedback mechanism to improve preventive measures and inform risk management decisions.

Corrective controls restore systems following an incident. Once an issue is detected, corrective controls are applied to recover affected systems, restore data, and bring operations back to normal. Examples include system backups, disaster recovery plans, patch management, and incident response procedures. Corrective controls are essential for minimizing downtime and reducing the long-term impact of security incidents.

Mitigating controls, meanwhile, reduce the impact or likelihood of a risk without necessarily preventing it entirely. These controls aim to limit potential damage if a threat materializes or reduce the probability of its occurrence. Common examples include encryption, which protects data even if intercepted; access controls, which restrict unauthorized users from sensitive resources; redundancy and failover systems, which ensure operational continuity; and firewalls or network segmentation, which contain threats. By implementing mitigating controls, organizations can manage risk effectively, operating within acceptable levels while protecting critical assets.

The type of control that specifically reduces the likelihood or impact of a risk is Mitigating, making it the correct answer. Mitigating controls are a vital component of a comprehensive risk management strategy. They provide a balanced approach, ensuring that even if preventive or detective controls fail, the organization is prepared to limit potential damage, maintain business continuity, and safeguard critical resources. In essence, mitigation acts as a buffer against uncertainties and strengthens the organization’s resilience against a wide range of threats.

Question 69:

 Which security principle ensures that users can access data and resources when needed?

A) Confidentiality
B) Integrity
C) Availability
D) Authentication

Answer: C

Explanation:

Confidentiality prevents unauthorized access to information, ensuring that sensitive data is only accessible to those with proper permissions. It is a foundational principle in information security and forms one-third of the widely recognized CIA triad—Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability. Confidentiality is maintained through mechanisms such as encryption, access control lists (ACLs), role-based access control (RBAC), and multi-factor authentication (MFA). Protecting confidentiality is essential to prevent data breaches, intellectual property theft, identity theft, and regulatory non-compliance.

Integrity ensures that data remains accurate, complete, and unaltered, whether in storage, processing, or transmission. This principle protects information from accidental corruption, intentional modification, or unauthorized deletion. Techniques to maintain integrity include checksums, cryptographic hash functions, digital signatures, and audit trails. By verifying that information has not been tampered with, integrity ensures trustworthiness and reliability of data, which is critical for decision-making, financial transactions, and regulatory reporting.

Authentication is the process of verifying the identity of users, systems, or devices before granting access to resources. Authentication mechanisms include passwords, PINs, biometric scans, smart cards, and cryptographic certificates. Strong authentication helps prevent unauthorized access, reduces the risk of impersonation attacks, and serves as a foundation for implementing access control policies. However, authentication alone does not guarantee that information remains correct or available—it simply confirms identity.

Availability, the principle ensuring that authorized users have access to systems, applications, and data when needed, completes the CIA triad. Availability is critical in both everyday business operations and high-stakes environments such as healthcare, financial services, and emergency response. Ensuring availability involves implementing redundancy, fault-tolerant systems, backup and disaster recovery solutions, load balancing, and resource management. Without availability, even accurate and confidential data is useless if it cannot be accessed when required.

Threats to availability include Denial-of-Service (DoS) or Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) attacks, hardware or software failures, misconfigurations, natural disasters, and human error. Organizations combat these threats by monitoring system performance, deploying high-availability infrastructure, maintaining backup systems, and preparing disaster recovery plans. Cloud-based solutions and geographically distributed systems further enhance availability by providing resilience against localized failures.

The security principle that ensures information and systems are accessible when required is Availability, making it the correct answer. By prioritizing availability alongside confidentiality and integrity, organizations can deliver reliable services, maintain operational continuity, and meet both regulatory and user expectations in today’s interconnected digital environment.

Question 70:

 Which principle requires that individuals not have control over all critical steps of a process?

A) Least Privilege
B) Separation of Duties
C) Need-to-Know
D) Role-Based Access Control

Answer: B

Explanation:

Least Privilege is a fundamental security principle that limits user access to only the resources necessary for performing assigned tasks. By minimizing unnecessary access, organizations reduce the potential attack surface, preventing unauthorized actions and limiting the impact of compromised accounts. For example, an employee in the marketing department may need access to content management tools but not to financial systems. Implementing least privilege helps enforce discipline, reduces insider threats, and aligns with regulatory requirements such as GDPR, HIPAA, or SOX.

Need-to-Know is another access control principle that restricts access to information based on the specific requirements of a task. Unlike least privilege, which focuses on system or resource access, need-to-know applies primarily to sensitive data. For example, an employee in research and development may only receive project-related documents relevant to their duties, even if they have broader system access. This principle prevents unnecessary exposure of sensitive information, reduces the risk of data leaks, and supports compliance with confidentiality policies.

Role-Based Access Control (RBAC) simplifies access management by assigning permissions based on roles rather than individuals. Each role encompasses a set of privileges required to perform associated job functions. For instance, an IT administrator role might have permissions to manage servers, deploy updates, and configure network settings, whereas a standard employee role has limited access to routine operational tools. RBAC reduces administrative overhead, ensures consistency in permission assignments, and helps enforce both least privilege and need-to-know principles.

Separation of Duties (SoD), also referred to as Segregation of Duties, goes beyond simple access restrictions to enforce organizational control and oversight. It divides critical responsibilities across multiple individuals so that no single person can complete all steps of a sensitive process alone. This reduces the risk of fraud, errors, or abuse of power, as collusion would be required to compromise a process fully. For example, in financial operations, one employee may authorize payments while another reviews and executes them. In IT administration, one staff member may request system changes, while another approves and implements them. By distributing responsibilities, SoD enhances accountability, facilitates internal audits, and ensures compliance with industry standards and regulations.

Separation of Duties is applied in various domains, including financial transactions, access management, software deployment, and compliance-sensitive workflows. Its implementation helps organizations detect anomalies, prevent malicious activities, and maintain operational integrity. Automated tools and workflow management systems can further enforce SoD policies by tracking actions and requiring approvals from multiple stakeholders.

The principle that ensures no single person has full control over a critical process is the Separation of Duties, making it the correct answer. By implementing SoD, organizations achieve stronger internal controls, reduce the likelihood of errors or fraud, and maintain a transparent, accountable operational environment.

Question 71:

 Which type of attack targets weaknesses in a website to inject malicious scripts executed in users’ browsers?

A) Cross-Site Scripting
B) SQL Injection
C) Denial-of-Service
D) Phishing

Answer: A

Explanation:

SQL Injection (SQLi) is a web security vulnerability that allows attackers to manipulate backend databases by injecting malicious SQL code into input fields. This can result in unauthorized access to data, modification or deletion of records, and, in some cases, full system compromise. However, SQL Injection targets the database layer, not client-side scripts, and its primary goal is to exploit server-side weaknesses in database query handling. Preventive measures include using parameterized queries, prepared statements, input validation, and limiting database permissions.

Denial-of-Service (DoS) attacks aim to disrupt service availability by overwhelming systems with excessive requests, rendering websites, applications, or networks inaccessible to legitimate users. Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) attacks amplify this effect by leveraging multiple compromised devices to flood a target simultaneously. While DoS attacks impact system availability, they do not inject malicious code into web pages or manipulate user browsers, and they do not directly compromise sensitive information. Mitigation involves network traffic monitoring, rate limiting, firewalls, intrusion prevention systems, and using cloud-based DDoS protection services.

Phishing is a social engineering technique that manipulates users into revealing sensitive information such as login credentials, personal data, or financial details. Phishing campaigns often involve fraudulent emails, messages, or websites that mimic legitimate entities to trick victims. While highly effective, phishing relies on human error rather than exploiting technical vulnerabilities in web applications or scripts. Security awareness training, email filtering, multi-factor authentication, and reporting mechanisms help reduce phishing risks.

Cross-Site Scripting (XSS), in contrast, directly targets web applications by injecting malicious scripts into otherwise trusted websites. These scripts execute in users’ browsers and can hijack sessions, steal cookies, manipulate content, or perform unauthorized actions on behalf of the user. XSS attacks exploit input validation weaknesses, where user-supplied data is not properly sanitized before being displayed in a webpage. There are several types of XSS attacks, including stored, reflected, and DOM-based XSS, each with different methods of delivering malicious scripts and persisting on a target site.

Mitigation strategies for XSS focus on secure coding practices and web application hardening. Input validation ensures that user input does not include executable code, while output encoding prevents browsers from interpreting user input as scripts. Content Security Policies (CSP) restrict the sources of executable scripts and reduce the risk of executing injected code. Regular security testing, code reviews, and automated scanning tools also help identify and remediate XSS vulnerabilities before they can be exploited.

The attack that injects malicious scripts into web pages, enabling them to execute in users’ browsers, is Cross-Site Scripting (XSS), making it the correct answer. XSS highlights the importance of secure web application development and demonstrates how client-side vulnerabilities can be leveraged to compromise users even without direct access to backend servers.

Question 72:

 Which process is used to identify, evaluate, and prioritize risks to organizational assets?

A) Risk Assessment
B) Business Impact Analysis
C) Vulnerability Scanning
D) Incident Response

Answer: A

Explanation:

Business Impact Analysis (BIA) is a critical component of business continuity planning that focuses on evaluating the effects of disruptions on organizational operations. It identifies critical business functions, estimates downtime tolerances, and quantifies potential financial and operational losses. While BIA helps organizations understand the consequences of incidents, it does not proactively identify risks or vulnerabilities. Instead, it provides insight into which functions and resources are most critical, allowing organizations to prioritize recovery strategies and disaster recovery planning.

Vulnerability scanning is another essential security practice that systematically identifies weaknesses in systems, applications, or networks. Automated tools scan for outdated software, misconfigurations, unpatched vulnerabilities, and other security gaps. Although vulnerability scanning provides valuable insight into specific weaknesses, it does not assess the overall context of organizational risk, evaluate potential impacts, or prioritize which vulnerabilities pose the greatest threat. Scans must be complemented by broader risk management processes to be actionable.

Incident Response (IR) is a reactive process designed to handle and mitigate the effects of security incidents once they occur. IR teams investigate breaches, contain threats, recover systems, and implement lessons learned to prevent recurrence. While critical for operational resilience, incident response does not proactively identify risks or assess potential threats before they materialize. It focuses on minimizing damage and restoring normal operations after an event has happened.

Risk Assessment, in contrast, is a structured, proactive process aimed at identifying, analyzing, and prioritizing risks to organizational assets. It evaluates both the likelihood of a threat occurring and the potential impact on operations, data, and resources. Risk assessment provides a comprehensive picture of organizational exposure, guiding decisions on risk mitigation, acceptance, transfer, or avoidance. By employing techniques such as qualitative analysis, quantitative analysis, threat modeling, and risk scoring, organizations can determine which assets and processes are most at risk and allocate resources effectively. Risk assessments also support regulatory compliance, strategic planning, and continuous improvement of the security posture.

The process that systematically identifies and prioritizes risks, enabling informed decision-making and proactive risk management, is Risk Assessment, making it the correct answer. By understanding potential threats before they occur, organizations can implement preventive and mitigating controls, reducing the likelihood and impact of security incidents and ensuring long-term operational resilience.

Question 73:

 Which network security device inspects traffic at the application layer and can block malicious requests?

A) Router
B) Switch
C) Proxy Server
D) Packet-Filtering Firewall

Answer: C

Explanation:

Routers are fundamental networking devices that direct data traffic between networks based on IP addresses and routing tables. They determine the most efficient path for packets to travel across interconnected networks, ensuring that data reaches its intended destination. While routers are critical for network connectivity and routing efficiency, they do not inspect the content of the packets at the application level. Their primary function is to forward traffic rather than analyze or enforce policies on specific application data.

Switches, on the other hand, operate primarily at Layer 2 of the OSI model, handling traffic within local area networks (LANs). They use MAC addresses to forward frames between devices on the same network segment and can create network segmentation through VLANs. While switches enhance performance and provide basic network security through segmentation, they lack the capability to analyze application-layer data, detect malicious content, or enforce web-specific policies.

Packet-filtering firewalls operate at Layer 3 (Network) and Layer 4 (Transport) of the OSI model. They inspect packet headers, source and destination IP addresses, and TCP/UDP port numbers to allow or deny traffic. Packet-filtering firewalls are effective at blocking unauthorized access, controlling network traffic, and enforcing basic security rules. However, they do not examine the actual payload of packets or interpret the application-level content. As such, they are insufficient for defending against threats embedded in HTTP requests, email messages, or other application-layer protocols.

Proxy Servers function at the application layer (Layer 7) and provide a higher level of traffic inspection and control. They act as intermediaries between clients and servers, intercepting all communication and applying security policies before the traffic reaches the destination. Proxy servers can filter content, block access to malicious or inappropriate websites, cache frequently accessed resources to improve performance, and provide anonymization to protect user identity. Because they understand the semantics of specific protocols, such as HTTP, HTTPS, or FTP, proxies can detect and prevent advanced threats that lower-layer devices cannot, including malware delivery, cross-site scripting attacks, and data exfiltration attempts.

By enabling application-layer inspection, proxy servers provide granular control over user activity and traffic flows, enforcing security and compliance policies while enhancing overall network safety. They serve as a critical component in defense-in-depth strategies, complementing firewalls, intrusion detection systems, and endpoint protection.

The device that inspects traffic at the application layer, enforces content policies, and protects against sophisticated threats is a Proxy Server, making it the correct answer. Its ability to mediate and filter client-server communication ensures robust security in modern, application-centric network environments.

Question 74:

Which term describes a system designed to continue functioning even after one component fails?

A) Redundancy
B) High Availability
C) Fault Tolerance
D) Disaster Recovery

Answer: C

Explanation:

Redundancy is a foundational concept in system design that provides duplicate components to enhance reliability. This can include duplicate servers, power supplies, storage devices, or network paths. While redundancy reduces the risk of a single point of failure, it does not automatically guarantee uninterrupted service. Systems may still experience downtime during failovers, maintenance, or if redundancy mechanisms are not properly configured. Redundancy primarily serves as a building block for higher levels of reliability and availability, but must be combined with other strategies to ensure seamless operation.

High Availability (HA) goes beyond simple redundancy to ensure that systems remain accessible for the maximum possible time, often expressed as a percentage of uptime (e.g., 99.99% uptime). High-availability systems incorporate redundant components, load balancing, clustering, and automated failover procedures to minimize downtime. However, high availability may still include brief interruptions during planned maintenance or failover processes. HA is designed to maximize system uptime, but it does not guarantee absolute continuity in the face of multiple simultaneous failures or catastrophic events.

Disaster Recovery (DR) focuses on restoring IT systems, applications, and data after a catastrophic event such as a natural disaster, cyberattack, or major hardware failure. DR strategies involve comprehensive planning, data backups, off-site storage, and failover to alternate sites. Disaster recovery ensures business continuity after significant disruptions but is inherently reactive, focusing on recovery rather than preventing service interruptions in real time.

Fault Tolerance represents the highest level of resilience among these concepts. It is the capability of a system to continue operating without interruption even when one or more components fail. Fault-tolerant systems use redundant hardware, software, and network paths in combination with automatic failover mechanisms, error detection, and continuous system monitoring. Unlike simple redundancy or high availability, fault tolerance ensures seamless operation, meaning users may not even notice a failure has occurred.

Designing fault-tolerant systems involves meticulous planning and robust engineering. Key considerations include redundant power supplies, mirrored storage, duplicate network interfaces, clustering, automated error correction, and real-time health monitoring. Fault tolerance is particularly critical in sectors where downtime can have catastrophic consequences, such as aviation, healthcare, finance, nuclear power, and telecommunications.

The system concept that allows continued operation despite component failures, ensuring uninterrupted service under adverse conditions, is Fault Tolerance, making it the correct answer. By combining redundancy, automatic failover, and continuous monitoring, fault-tolerant systems provide unparalleled reliability, protecting critical operations against both hardware and software failures.

Question 75:

 Which type of attack exploits a vulnerability to gain unauthorized administrative control over a system?

A) Privilege Escalation
B) Social Engineering
C) Denial-of-Service
D) Phishing

Answer: A

Explanation:

Social Engineering attacks focus on manipulating individuals rather than exploiting technical vulnerabilities in systems. Techniques such as pretexting, baiting, impersonation, or tailgating rely on human behavior to gain access, information, or compliance. While highly effective in bypassing security controls, social engineering does not inherently involve escalating privileges within a system. The attacker typically leverages trust, curiosity, or fear to achieve their objective, often targeting credentials or sensitive information rather than exploiting software flaws.

Denial-of-Service (DoS) attacks aim to disrupt the availability of systems, applications, or networks by overwhelming resources, but they do not grant the attacker additional access or control over the system. Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) attacks amplify this effect by using multiple compromised devices to generate massive traffic, making services unavailable to legitimate users. While DoS attacks can cause operational and financial damage, they do not inherently alter system permissions or escalate privileges.

Phishing is another common attack vector that deceives users into disclosing sensitive information, such as login credentials, personal data, or financial details. Although phishing can serve as a precursor to further attacks, such as malware deployment or account compromise, it does not directly exploit system vulnerabilities to increase privileges. The effectiveness of phishing relies primarily on social manipulation rather than technical exploitation of system flaws.

Privilege Escalation, in contrast, directly targets system vulnerabilities to gain higher-level access than what was initially granted. Vertical privilege escalation occurs when an attacker gains administrative or root-level permissions, enabling them to control system settings, install malware, or exfiltrate data. Horizontal privilege escalation involves accessing resources or accounts at the same level, such as viewing another user’s files without authorization. Common techniques include exploiting software bugs, misconfigurations, improper access controls, or unpatched vulnerabilities.

Mitigating privilege escalation requires a layered security approach. Patch management ensures known vulnerabilities are addressed promptly, while enforcing the principle of least privilege limits users’ access rights to only what is necessary for their roles. Continuous auditing and real-time monitoring can detect unusual access patterns or attempts to exploit vulnerabilities, allowing organizations to respond swiftly to potential threats.

Privilege Escalation is a critical concern in cybersecurity because it allows attackers to expand their control within systems, potentially leading to full compromise, data breaches, or operational disruption. Proper preventative measures and vigilant monitoring are essential to reduce the risk and impact of such attacks.