ISC CISSP Certified Information Systems Security Professional Exam Dumps and Practice Test Questions Set 15 Q211-225
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Question 211:
Which access control model is based on the sensitivity of information and user clearance levels?
A) Discretionary Access Control (DAC)
B) Mandatory Access Control (MAC)
C) Role-Based Access Control (RBAC)
D) Rule-Based Access Control
Answer: B
Explanation:
Discretionary Access Control (DAC) allows resource owners to determine access permissions for their files or assets. It provides flexibility, as owners can grant or revoke access, but it can lead to inconsistent security policies and the potential for accidental over-privileging. While effective in smaller, controlled environments, DAC is generally insufficient for highly sensitive information because it relies on individual user judgment rather than a centralized enforcement mechanism.
Role-Based Access Control (RBAC) assigns access based on organizational roles and responsibilities rather than individual identities. Users inherit privileges associated with their roles, simplifying administration and enforcement of least privilege. While RBAC offers consistency and scalability, it does not inherently tie access to the sensitivity level of the data itself; it is primarily task- or function-oriented.
Rule-Based Access Control (RBAC variant) applies access decisions according to system-defined rules, such as time-of-day access or network location. While these rules can add contextual control, they do not directly address clearance levels or data classification.
Mandatory Access Control (MAC), on the other hand, enforces access decisions based on information sensitivity and user clearance levels. Each resource is labeled with a classification (e.g., confidential, secret, top-secret), and users are granted a clearance that determines the highest level of information they can access. Access decisions are enforced centrally and cannot be overridden by individual users. MAC is widely used in military, government, and high-security environments where strict control over information flow is essential. It ensures that highly sensitive information cannot be accessed or modified by unauthorized personnel, reducing the risk of data leaks or insider threats.
MAC enforces strict policy adherence, reduces privilege creep, and aligns access control with organizational security policies. Combining classification labels with user clearances provides a structured and predictable method to protect sensitive information.
The access control model that directly ties permissions to information sensitivity and user clearance is Mandatory Access Control, making it the correct answer. MAC ensures that security is enforced consistently across the organization, independent of individual user discretion, providing strong protection for critical data.
Question 212:
Which cloud service model allows users to deploy applications without managing the underlying infrastructure?
A) Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
B) Platform as a Service (PaaS)
C) Software as a Service (SaaS)
D) Function as a Service (FaaS)
Answer: B
Explanation:
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) provides virtualized computing resources such as virtual machines, storage, and networks. Users have full control over operating systems, applications, and configurations, but must manage and maintain the infrastructure themselves. IaaS offers flexibility and administrative control but requires technical expertise and operational responsibility.
Software as a Service (SaaS) delivers fully managed applications to end users via web interfaces or APIs. Users cannot modify infrastructure or platform components and only manage application-level settings. SaaS provides minimal administrative control and is focused on usability rather than deployment flexibility.
Function as a Service (FaaS) abstracts infrastructure further by allowing users to run event-driven code without managing servers or runtime environments. It is highly granular and serverless, focusing on specific functions rather than entire applications.
Platform as a Service (PaaS) provides a complete development and deployment environment, including operating systems, middleware, and runtime environments. Developers can focus entirely on creating and deploying applications without worrying about underlying infrastructure. The provider handles updates, scalability, and resource management, enabling rapid development, consistency, and simplified operational overhead. PaaS platforms often include built-in databases, development frameworks, and deployment automation tools.
PaaS allows users to deploy applications efficiently while delegating infrastructure responsibilities to the provider. This separation of duties increases productivity, reduces administrative complexity, and allows organizations to leverage cloud resources for scalable, secure, and maintainable application deployment.
The cloud service model that enables application deployment without managing underlying infrastructure is Platform as a Service, making it the correct answer. It strikes a balance between flexibility and managed services, supporting rapid development and operational efficiency in cloud environments.
Question 213:
Which type of testing evaluates software functionality without knowledge of internal code or structure?
A) White-box Testing
B) Black-box Testing
C) Gray-box Testing
D) Unit Testing
Answer: B
Explanation:
White-box testing involves detailed knowledge of the internal structure, logic, and code of an application. Testers examine control flows, data flows, algorithms, and security mechanisms directly. This approach allows detection of specific code-level vulnerabilities, logic errors, and insecure implementations, but it is not feasible when internal knowledge is unavailable.
Gray-box testing combines partial internal knowledge with external testing techniques. Testers might know architecture, data schemas, or partial system designs, enabling targeted test cases while maintaining an external perspective. Gray-box testing improves efficiency and coverage compared to black-box approaches but still relies on some internal information.
Unit testing focuses on individual components or functions in isolation. It is conducted by developers during the development phase to ensure the correctness of specific modules. While critical for quality assurance, unit testing does not evaluate overall system behavior or security comprehensively.
Black-box testing, in contrast, evaluates software exclusively from an external perspective. Testers interact with the system through inputs and observe outputs without access to source code or internal architecture. This method simulates how an external attacker or end-user would perceive the system. Black-box testing focuses on functional correctness, usability, security, and unexpected behaviors that could arise from typical or atypical interactions. It can detect misconfigurations, input validation issues, security flaws, and performance problems that are visible at the interface level.
Black-box testing is widely used for penetration testing, system acceptance testing, and compliance verification because it mirrors real-world scenarios where attackers or end-users have no internal knowledge. Its primary strength lies in uncovering flaws that internal-focused testing may overlook.
The type of testing that evaluates software functionality without requiring internal knowledge is Black-box Testing, making it the correct answer. This method ensures that software behaves correctly under realistic operational conditions and is resilient to misuse, malicious input, and unexpected interactions. It is a cornerstone in quality assurance, security testing, and user-focused evaluations.
Question 214:
Which authentication factor relies on something the user possesses?
A) Knowledge-based
B) Token-based
C) Biometric
D) Password
Answer: B
Explanation:
Knowledge-based authentication relies on information the user knows, such as passwords, PINs, or answers to security questions. It is vulnerable to theft, phishing, or social engineering, as attackers may obtain or guess the knowledge factor.
Biometric authentication uses unique physical traits, such as fingerprints, iris patterns, voice, or facial recognition. While highly secure in theory, biometrics can be bypassed through spoofing or replication in certain scenarios. Biometric systems also raise privacy concerns and require specialized hardware.
Passwords are another form of knowledge-based authentication, relying on memorized strings. They can be combined with other factors, but alone do not represent possession.
Token-based authentication uses physical devices that generate time-based codes, challenge-response values, or cryptographic keys. Examples include hardware tokens, smart cards, or mobile authentication apps. These represent something the user possesses, which adds a layer of security beyond knowledge alone. Tokens can be lost or stolen, but they are less susceptible to guessing or phishing than passwords alone. Tokens are often used in multi-factor authentication schemes combined with something the user knows (password) or something the user is (biometric).
Authentication factors are categorized into three main types: something you know, something you have, and something you are. Token-based authentication represents “something you have,” providing proof of possession that can be verified by the system. Proper implementation enhances security by preventing unauthorized access even if knowledge-based factors are compromised.
The authentication factor that relies on a physical item or device that the user possesses is Token-based authentication, making it the correct answer. Tokens play a critical role in securing access to sensitive systems, financial transactions, and corporate networks.
Question 215:
Which type of malware disguises itself as a legitimate application to trick users into executing it?
A) Worm
B) Trojan
C) Virus
D) Rootkit
Answer: B
Explanation:
Worms are self-replicating malware that spread autonomously across networks without user intervention. They exploit vulnerabilities to propagate, but do not rely on user deception to be executed. Viruses attach themselves to files or programs and require execution to replicate; while they often cause widespread damage, they do not inherently disguise themselves as legitimate software. Rootkits are malicious programs designed to hide malware presence and maintain privileged access, focusing on concealment rather than user deception.
Trojans are malware that masquerade as legitimate software, utilities, or files to trick users into executing them. Once run, they can perform malicious actions such as stealing data, creating backdoors, or compromising system integrity. Trojans rely on social engineering to exploit human trust, convincing users that the program is safe. This makes user awareness, software verification, and endpoint security critical for defense.
Trojans are widely used in phishing campaigns, malicious downloads, and software piracy schemes. Unlike worms or viruses, Trojans do not self-propagate; their effectiveness depends on user action. Anti-malware solutions, behavioral monitoring, and application whitelisting help detect and mitigate Trojans. Security policies encouraging software installation only from trusted sources and regular updates further reduce risk.
The type of malware that explicitly depends on appearing legitimate and tricking users into execution is a Trojan, making it the correct answer. Trojans emphasize the importance of combining technical controls with user education and vigilance to maintain a secure environment.
Question 216:
Which cryptographic attack uses precomputed tables of hash values to recover plaintext passwords?
A) Brute-force Attack
B) Rainbow Table Attack
C) Man-in-the-Middle Attack
D) Replay Attack
Answer: B
Explanation:
Brute-force attacks involve systematically attempting all possible combinations of passwords or keys until the correct one is discovered. While effective against short or simple passwords, brute-force attacks are time-intensive and computationally expensive, especially for strong passwords with high entropy. They do not utilize any prior computation to reduce effort, relying solely on trial and error.
Man-in-the-Middle attacks intercept or alter communication between two parties. These attacks target confidentiality and integrity during transmission but do not attempt to reverse hashed passwords using precomputed values. Replay attacks capture valid authentication exchanges or transactions and reuse them to gain unauthorized access. They exploit the reuse of legitimate credentials rather than cracking hashed values.
Rainbow table attacks, however, leverage precomputed tables mapping plaintext values to their corresponding hash outputs. When an attacker captures a hash, they can compare it against the table to quickly recover the original plaintext without performing exhaustive computation. Rainbow tables significantly reduce the time required to crack hashed passwords compared to brute-force methods. However, they require substantial storage space to maintain comprehensive tables covering possible password combinations. These attacks are most effective against unsalted hashes because salts introduce randomness, rendering precomputed tables ineffective.
Defenses against rainbow table attacks include using unique salts for each password, strong hashing algorithms, multi-factor authentication, and enforcing complex password policies. Salting ensures that even identical passwords generate distinct hashes, preventing attackers from using a single precomputed table to crack multiple accounts. Combining salting with computationally intensive hashing algorithms such as bcrypt, scrypt, or Argon2 further increases resistance.
The attack type that explicitly relies on precomputed hash tables to reverse hashed credentials efficiently is the Rainbow Table Attack, making it the correct answer. Understanding rainbow table attacks highlights the importance of salting, strong cryptography, and password management in protecting user credentials against fast, large-scale attacks.
Question 217:
Which type of backup captures all files changed since the last full backup without resetting the archive bit?
A) Full Backup
B) Differential Backup
C) Incremental Backup
D) Synthetic Full Backup
Answer: B
Explanation:
Full backups copy all files, regardless of modification status. While they simplify recovery because only the most recent full backup is required, they consume significant storage space and time. Organizations often use full backups as a baseline, combined with incremental or differential backups, to balance efficiency.
Incremental backups copy only files changed since the last backup of any type and reset the archive bit after completion. This minimizes storage requirements and reduces backup windows but complicates restoration, as all subsequent incremental backups must be applied along with the last full backup to achieve complete recovery.
Synthetic full backups combine previous full and incremental backups to create a new full backup without copying data directly from the source. This approach reduces operational load during backup windows but does not inherently match the behavior of differential or incremental backups regarding archive-bit management.
Differential backups capture all files that have changed since the last full backup but do not reset the archive bit. Each differential backup accumulates all modifications since the full backup, causing its size to grow over time. Restoration requires only the last full backup and the latest differential backup, simplifying recovery compared to incremental methods. Differential backups strike a balance between storage efficiency and simplicity, ensuring that important changes are captured regularly without creating overly complex recovery processes.
By retaining the archive bit, differential backups maintain a record of files changed since the last full backup, allowing administrators to track modification history effectively. This method reduces administrative complexity while providing reliable data protection.
The backup type that captures all changes since the last full backup without resetting the archive bit is Differential Backup, making it the correct answer. Differential backups are widely used in enterprise environments to balance backup efficiency, storage usage, and recovery simplicity, ensuring critical data is consistently protected.
Question 218:
Which process ensures that changes to systems are formally evaluated, approved, and documented?
A) Configuration Management
B) Patch Management
C) Change Management
D) Incident Response
Answer: C
Explanation:
Configuration management tracks and maintains system configurations, ensuring they align with approved baselines. While critical for stability and consistency, it does not inherently govern how changes are requested, approved, or implemented. Patch management focuses on applying software updates or fixes, but it is a subset of the broader change management process. Incident response addresses detection, containment, and recovery from security events, rather than proactively managing planned modifications.
Change management is a formalized process designed to govern system changes, including hardware, software, network, or process modifications. The process ensures that all changes are evaluated for potential risks, impact on security, compliance, and operational continuity. Each change must be documented, reviewed, and approved by relevant stakeholders, often including risk assessments, testing, and post-implementation reviews.
By enforcing structured procedures, change management minimizes the likelihood of unauthorized or harmful modifications, reduces system downtime, and enhances organizational accountability. Effective change management provides traceability, allowing audits to verify that changes were properly authorized and executed. It is essential for regulatory compliance, operational stability, and overall IT governance.
Change Management is a structured process that governs how modifications to IT systems, applications, or infrastructure are proposed, evaluated, approved, documented, and implemented. Its primary goal is to ensure that all changes are executed in a controlled manner, minimizing unintended consequences, disruptions, or security vulnerabilities. Without a formal change management process, organizations risk introducing errors, outages, or security gaps when making updates, patches, configuration adjustments, or system upgrades. By providing a standardized workflow for handling changes, this process helps maintain system stability, operational continuity, and compliance with internal policies and external regulations.
A key component of change management is the evaluation phase, where proposed changes are assessed for potential risks, costs, benefits, and impacts on business operations. This assessment typically involves multiple stakeholders, including IT teams, business units, security personnel, and risk management professionals. By carefully reviewing changes before implementation, organizations can identify potential conflicts, dependencies, or security implications, ensuring that changes align with organizational objectives and regulatory requirements.
Approval is another critical step in change management. Authorized personnel, often within a change advisory board (CAB), review the evaluation findings and decide whether the change should proceed, be modified, or be rejected. This ensures accountability, oversight, and consistency in decision-making. Once approved, changes are documented in detail, including objectives, implementation steps, testing procedures, rollback plans, and responsible parties. Thorough documentation not only facilitates smoother implementation but also provides an audit trail for compliance and post-implementation review.
Implementation under change management follows a controlled process, often including testing in a staging environment before deployment to production. Monitoring and post-change review help verify that the change achieved its intended purpose without introducing errors, performance issues, or security vulnerabilities. By following this disciplined approach, organizations reduce operational risks, maintain service reliability, and ensure that IT infrastructure supports business goals effectively.
In conclusion, the process that governs the formal evaluation, approval, documentation, and implementation of system changes is Change Management. It is a cornerstone of IT governance, operational stability, and security assurance, making it the correct answer.
Question 219:
Which security principle ensures that users are granted only the minimum privileges necessary to perform their tasks?
A) Separation of Duties
B) Least Privilege
C) Defense in Depth
D) Need-to-Know
Answer: B
Explanation:
Separation of duties is a control designed to prevent fraud or errors by dividing critical responsibilities among multiple individuals. While it enforces accountability, it does not directly limit privileges to only what is necessary for a given task.
Defense in depth employs multiple layers of security controls to protect information systems. It strengthens overall security by providing redundancy, but it does not directly restrict user permissions or access to resources.
Need-to-know limits access to specific information only to those who require it for their job duties. While closely related to least privilege, need-to-know focuses on restricting access to sensitive data, whereas least privilege is broader, applying to all resources, applications, and systems.
Least privilege is the principle of granting users, processes, or systems the minimum set of permissions necessary to perform their tasks. By restricting access to only what is needed, it reduces attack surfaces, prevents privilege escalation, and limits the potential damage caused by compromised accounts. This principle is foundational to secure system design, access control policies, and regulatory compliance.
Implementing least privilege requires careful assessment of roles, responsibilities, and system capabilities. Access control lists, role-based permissions, and mandatory access controls can enforce this principle. Regular auditing ensures that privileges remain aligned with current job functions, preventing the accumulation of unnecessary permissions over time, known as privilege creep.
By adhering to least privilege, organizations mitigate risks such as insider threats, accidental data exposure, and unauthorized access to sensitive resources. It complements other security principles, including separation of duties and defense in depth, creating a layered and robust security posture.
The principle that explicitly ensures users are granted only the minimum rights necessary to perform their work is Least Privilege, making it the correct answer. It is widely recognized as a core security control in frameworks such as CISSP, NIST, and ISO standards, supporting secure, auditable, and resilient systems.
Question 220:
Which type of malware replicates across systems without user intervention?
A) Trojan
B) Worm
C) Virus
D) Rootkit
Answer: B
Explanation:
Trojans disguise themselves as legitimate software to trick users into executing them. They rely on social engineering rather than self-replication and cannot spread autonomously.
Viruses attach to files or programs and require execution by the user to propagate. Their replication depends on user actions, making them less autonomous than worms.
Rootkits focus on hiding malicious processes or software to maintain privileged access. They do not inherently replicate themselves but are primarily designed for stealth and persistence.
Worms are self-replicating malware that spread automatically across networks or systems without requiring user intervention. They exploit vulnerabilities in software, protocols, or network configurations to propagate. Worms can rapidly infect multiple systems, leading to network congestion, denial-of-service conditions, or the deployment of additional payloads such as ransomware. Common examples include the Blaster, Slammer, and WannaCry worms.
Mitigation of worm attacks involves patch management, network segmentation, firewalls, intrusion detection systems, and endpoint security. Worms highlight the importance of proactive vulnerability management because they exploit unpatched or misconfigured systems to spread.
The malware that autonomously propagates across systems without requiring user action is a Worm, making it the correct answer. Worms pose significant risks to availability, performance, and security, emphasizing the need for layered defenses and timely patching.
Question 221:
Which security control type is intended to detect incidents after they occur?
A) Preventive
B) Detective
C) Corrective
D) Deterrent
Answer: B
Explanation:
Preventive controls are designed to stop incidents before they occur, such as firewalls, access controls, and authentication mechanisms. Corrective controls respond to incidents after they happen to restore systems, including patching, restoring backups, and fixing misconfigurations. Deterrent controls discourage unauthorized actions through warnings, signage, or policy enforcement, but do not actively identify incidents.
Detective controls are intended to identify and alert organizations about incidents once they occur. Examples include intrusion detection systems, audit logs, security monitoring tools, and anomaly detection software. They provide evidence, trigger alerts, and support incident response processes. Detective controls allow organizations to react promptly, investigate, and prevent further damage.
Detective controls play a pivotal role in an organization’s overall security strategy by providing the mechanisms to detect, record, and alert on suspicious or unauthorized activities. Unlike preventive controls, which aim to stop security incidents before they occur, detective controls operate post-event, offering visibility into security breaches, policy violations, or operational anomalies after they have taken place. Examples of detective controls include intrusion detection systems (IDS), security information and event management (SIEM) solutions, audit logs, file integrity monitoring tools, and continuous network traffic analysis systems. These tools collect, analyze, and correlate data from various sources to identify patterns or behaviors that may indicate a security incident or system compromise.
One of the primary benefits of detective controls is that they enable organizations to respond promptly to potential threats. By continuously monitoring networks, systems, and user activity, these controls can highlight unusual behaviors such as multiple failed login attempts, unauthorized file modifications, or abnormal traffic flows. Early detection allows incident response teams to investigate and mitigate issues before they escalate into significant breaches, minimizing operational disruption, financial loss, and reputational damage. Detective controls also provide forensic evidence, which is critical for post-incident analysis, regulatory compliance, and legal proceedings. Detailed logs and reports help organizations understand how an incident occurred, identify affected systems, and implement corrective measures to prevent recurrence.
Additionally, detective controls complement preventive and corrective security measures, forming an integral part of a layered defense-in-depth strategy. While preventive controls like firewalls and access controls reduce the likelihood of incidents, and corrective controls restore systems to a secure state, detective controls ensure that security events are recognized, documented, and addressed promptly. They are particularly important in complex or dynamic environments, such as cloud infrastructures or large enterprise networks, where threats may bypass initial defenses unnoticed.
The control type specifically designed to identify and report incidents after they occur is Detective. These controls enhance situational awareness, support effective incident response, strengthen operational oversight, and contribute to comprehensive risk management. Detective controls are essential for maintaining organizational security and ensuring that threats are detected, analyzed, and remediated efficiently.
Question 222:
Which cryptographic method ensures both data confidentiality and integrity using asymmetric keys?
A) AES
B) RSA
C) SHA-256
D) HMAC
Answer: B
Explanation:
AES, or Advanced Encryption Standard, is one of the most widely used symmetric encryption algorithms in modern cybersecurity. Being symmetric, AES relies on a single shared secret key for both encryption and decryption. This makes it highly efficient for encrypting large volumes of data quickly, which is why it is commonly used for securing files, network traffic, and databases. However, AES alone does not provide intrinsic mechanisms for verifying data integrity or authenticity. If an encrypted message is altered in transit, AES cannot detect the tampering—it will simply decrypt the modified ciphertext into incorrect plaintext. Therefore, while AES is excellent for ensuring confidentiality, it must be combined with additional integrity mechanisms, such as HMAC or digital signatures, to provide comprehensive security.
SHA-256, part of the SHA-2 hashing family, is designed to ensure data integrity by producing a fixed-length hash value from input data. Any modification to the original data results in a completely different hash, allowing recipients to verify that the data has not been altered. However, hashing alone does not provide confidentiality; the original data remains accessible unless encrypted. SHA-256 is widely used in digital signatures, certificate validation, and data integrity verification, but it cannot protect the contents of a message from unauthorized access.
HMAC, or Hash-based Message Authentication Code, combines a cryptographic hash function with a secret key to ensure both data integrity and authentication. The key ensures that only parties with the shared secret can generate or verify the HMAC. HMAC is symmetric in nature, meaning that both sender and receiver must possess the same key. While HMAC is excellent for integrity verification and authentication in symmetric scenarios, it does not provide confidentiality, and key distribution remains a challenge in large or distributed systems.
RSA, in contrast, is an asymmetric encryption algorithm that relies on a key pair: a public key for encryption or signature verification and a private key for decryption or signing. By encrypting data with the recipient’s public key, RSA ensures that only the holder of the corresponding private key can decrypt the message, thereby providing confidentiality. Additionally, RSA supports digital signatures: the sender can sign data with their private key, and anyone with access to the public key can verify the signature. This provides integrity and non-repudiation, ensuring that the data has not been altered and that the sender cannot deny sending it. The asymmetric nature of RSA also solves key distribution challenges inherent in symmetric systems, as public keys can be openly shared without compromising security.
Combining encryption and signing using RSA enables secure communications that protect both the confidentiality and integrity of data. This makes RSA a versatile tool for secure messaging, digital certificates, key exchange protocols, and authentication systems. It is particularly useful in scenarios such as HTTPS connections, secure email, and VPNs, where both privacy and data authenticity are critical.
In conclusion, while AES ensures confidentiality and SHA-256 or HMAC provides integrity, RSA uniquely combines these features using asymmetric keys, making it suitable for protecting sensitive data in transmission while verifying its authenticity. The cryptographic method that ensures both confidentiality and integrity using asymmetric keys is therefore RSA, making it the correct answer.
Question 223:
Which cloud service model provides users with fully managed applications with minimal control over underlying infrastructure?
A) IaaS
B) PaaS
C) SaaS
D) FaaS
Answer: C
Explanation:
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) is a cloud service model that provides virtualized computing resources over the internet. In IaaS, users are responsible for managing the operating systems, applications, and configurations while the provider supplies the physical hardware, networking, storage, and virtualization capabilities. This model offers flexibility and control, making it suitable for organizations that want to build custom environments, deploy legacy applications, or maintain specific security configurations. However, IaaS requires more administrative effort compared to other cloud models, as users must handle patching, updates, and scaling of the software stack.
Platform as a Service (PaaS) abstracts much of the infrastructure management, providing a complete environment for application development, deployment, and scaling. Developers can focus on writing and deploying code without worrying about the underlying servers, storage, or networking. PaaS platforms often include development tools, databases, middleware, and runtime environments, which accelerate application delivery and reduce operational overhead. Examples of PaaS include Google App Engine, Microsoft Azure App Services, and Heroku. While PaaS simplifies deployment, it still requires users to manage the application logic and configurations, offering less control over the underlying environment than IaaS.
Function as a Service (FaaS) is a specialized, serverless computing model where developers deploy individual functions or small units of code that execute in response to specific events. The cloud provider handles infrastructure provisioning, scaling, and runtime management automatically. FaaS is optimized for event-driven workloads and microservices architectures, allowing organizations to pay only for execution time rather than reserved resources. AWS Lambda, Azure Functions, and Google Cloud Functions are popular FaaS platforms. Although FaaS greatly reduces administrative responsibilities, it is limited to stateless functions and requires careful design to manage dependencies and execution triggers.
Software as a Service (SaaS) delivers fully managed applications over the internet, allowing users to access software through web browsers or APIs without managing infrastructure, runtime, or platform components. SaaS providers handle updates, security patches, scaling, and operational maintenance, which greatly reduces administrative burden for organizations. Users focus solely on application-level configurations, such as user settings, workflows, and data management. Popular SaaS offerings include Gmail, Salesforce, Microsoft Office 365, Slack, and Zoom. By outsourcing the technical complexity to the provider, organizations gain consistent access to applications, rapid deployment, and predictable costs.
SaaS is particularly advantageous for businesses that require standardized software solutions with minimal operational management. It supports remote work, collaboration, and integration with other cloud services, making it ideal for modern, distributed organizations. However, the trade-off is limited control over underlying infrastructure, application performance tuning, and customization at deeper technical levels. Despite these limitations, the convenience, scalability, and reduced administrative responsibilities make SaaS the most suitable model for organizations seeking fully managed software solutions.
In conclusion, while IaaS, PaaS, and FaaS provide varying levels of control over infrastructure and development environments, SaaS uniquely delivers fully managed applications where the provider handles all underlying components. Users interact with the software at the application layer only, benefiting from simplicity, accessibility, and reduced operational overhead. The cloud service model that provides fully managed applications is therefore SaaS, making it the correct answer.
Question 224:
Which risk response strategy involves completely discontinuing a risky activity?
A) Mitigate
B) Accept
C) Transfer
D) Avoid
Answer: D
Explanation:
Mitigation is a proactive approach to risk management that focuses on reducing either the likelihood of a risk occurring or its potential impact on the organization. This can involve implementing controls such as firewalls, intrusion detection systems, employee training, redundant systems, or process improvements. While mitigation reduces exposure, it does not completely remove the risk; residual risk always remains. The key goal is to make the risk more manageable and less likely to cause significant harm. For example, applying encryption to sensitive data mitigates the risk of data breaches but does not eliminate the possibility of breaches.
Acceptance, another common risk response strategy, involves acknowledging the existence of a risk and choosing to tolerate it without implementing specific controls. Organizations may accept certain risks when the cost of mitigation exceeds the potential impact or when the risk is considered minor or unlikely. This strategy requires continuous monitoring because circumstances can change, potentially increasing the severity or likelihood of the accepted risk. Acceptance is often used in scenarios where resources are limited or when risk cannot be fully mitigated.
Transfer, or risk sharing, shifts the potential impact of a risk to a third party. Insurance is a classic example, where financial losses from certain risks are borne by an insurance company rather than the organization. Contracts and outsourcing arrangements can also transfer operational or liability risks to other parties. While transfer reduces the direct burden on the organization, it does not eliminate the risk itself. Operational disruptions, reputational damage, or non-financial impacts may still occur, making it important to combine transfer with other strategies like mitigation or monitoring.
Avoidance, by contrast, is the strategy that eliminates the risk by stopping or altering the activity that generates the risk. This is the most definitive way to manage threats because the underlying cause is removed, preventing the risk from ever materializing. Avoidance often requires a strategic decision to refrain from certain high-risk actions, such as entering volatile markets, deploying untested technologies, or handling sensitive data in insecure ways. While this approach may limit opportunities or reduce potential gains, it ensures that the organization does not face the specific risk at all. For example, a company might avoid the risk of a data breach in a cloud environment by choosing not to store particularly sensitive information online, thereby eliminating exposure.
Avoidance is particularly useful when the potential impact of a risk is catastrophic or beyond the organization’s capacity to manage. It is also commonly applied in scenarios where compliance, legal requirements, or ethical considerations prohibit certain actions. By proactively eliminating the risk source, organizations gain certainty and can focus resources on more manageable or strategic risks. This makes avoidance the only risk response that completely removes a threat rather than just reducing, tolerating, or transferring it.
While mitigation, acceptance, and transfer are valuable strategies for managing risks, they do not eradicate the risk. Avoidance stands out as the only approach that eliminates exposure by removing the activity or condition that could lead to harm. Therefore, the risk response strategy that eliminates the risk is Avoid, making it the correct and most decisive choice for situations where total risk elimination is necessary.
Question 225:
Which security principle ensures that a system remains secure even if its internal design is publicly known?
A) Security through Obscurity
B) Open Design
C) Least Functionality
D) Defense in Depth
Answer: B
Explanation:
Security through obscurity is a concept where the security of a system depends primarily on keeping its design, implementation details, or algorithms secret. While this approach might provide a superficial layer of protection, it is fundamentally unreliable as a standalone strategy. Once the hidden details are discovered—whether through reverse engineering, leaks, or insider knowledge—the system becomes vulnerable. Relying solely on secrecy can create a false sense of security, leading to insufficient attention to stronger protective measures such as encryption, access controls, or continuous monitoring. Moreover, in a modern cybersecurity context, attackers are sophisticated and motivated, often capable of uncovering hidden designs through systematic analysis. Therefore, security through obscurity is not considered a robust principle; it might complement other methods, but it cannot replace sound security practices.
Least functionality, also known as the principle of minimalism, focuses on reducing the system’s attack surface by enabling only the necessary services, applications, or features. By minimizing what is available to potential attackers, the principle reduces opportunities for exploitation. While the least functionality is critical in system hardening and contributes to the overall security posture, it does not directly address the transparency of internal system mechanisms. A system could implement the least functionality but still be vulnerable if its design contains flaws that are discoverable by attackers. Thus, while beneficial, the least functionality alone does not ensure that security is maintained, even if internal details are publicly known.
Defense in depth is another well-known security strategy that employs multiple layers of controls to protect information and resources. These layers may include firewalls, intrusion detection systems, encryption, authentication mechanisms, and monitoring tools. The idea is that if one control fails, others provide additional protection, thereby reducing the likelihood of a successful attack. Although defense in depth strengthens overall security and mitigates risks, it does not inherently guarantee that a system remains secure if its internal workings are fully disclosed. A determined attacker with sufficient knowledge might still exploit weaknesses that exist across layers, especially if the underlying design has fundamental flaws.
Open design, on the other hand, represents a philosophy rooted in transparency and the belief that security should not depend on secrecy. The core idea is that a system should remain secure even if every detail of its internal workings—including algorithms, code, and architectural decisions—is publicly known. This principle relies on building systems using strong, rigorously tested security controls, well-established cryptographic algorithms, and robust implementation practices. By allowing independent experts and the community to review and analyze the system, vulnerabilities can be identified and addressed before they can be exploited. Open design promotes verifiability, resilience, and trustworthiness because security is demonstrably derived from sound engineering rather than hidden mechanisms.
The advantages of open design extend beyond mere theoretical robustness. Transparent systems encourage peer review, fostering continuous improvement and rapid identification of flaws. In cryptography, for example, algorithms that are openly published and subjected to extensive analysis tend to be more reliable and widely trusted than proprietary or secret methods. Open design also aligns with regulatory and compliance requirements in many industries, where organizations must demonstrate that security controls are effective, auditable, and verifiable. Furthermore, open design principles enhance user trust, as stakeholders can have confidence that the system is built on solid foundations rather than hidden or secret mechanisms that could fail without warning.
While strategies like security through obscurity, least functionality, and defense in depth contribute to overall security, they do not address the core principle of maintaining protection despite public knowledge of system internals. Open design emphasizes the creation of inherently secure systems through transparent architecture, strong controls, and robust implementation. By decoupling security from secrecy, open design ensures that systems can withstand scrutiny, adapt to evolving threats, and maintain trustworthiness. Therefore, the security principle that ensures security even when all internal mechanisms are publicly known is Open Design, making it the correct and most reliable choice.